The CEO’s personal brand: Differences in creation between women and men

Main Article Content

Zuzanna Staniszewska
Anna Górska

Abstract

Men and women are perceived differently and thus their personal brands can be created and presented differently. The question of the existence of any differences in personal brand creation by male and female leaders remains unanswered [Górska 2021]. In reference to this research gap, the purpose of the present study is an attempt to find answers to the following research questions: What differences are there in the personal brand creation processes of female and male CEOs? How do women and men in CEO positions use the media to build their personal brands?
This article is intended as an exploratory study to identify the differences in CEO’s personal branding between women and men. We will begin with a discussion of the subject literature and differences in how women and men are perceived in professional and private situations, focusing primarily on the personal brands of male and female leaders and CEOs. Next, we will present the preliminary results of a pilot study and will discuss the results in the context of prior findings. In the last section we will make recommendations for future studies and discuss the limitations. (fragment of the text)

Article Details

How to Cite
Staniszewska, Z., & Górska, A. (2022). The CEO’s personal brand: Differences in creation between women and men. Women and Business, (1-4), 2–15, 42. https://doi.org/10.33119/KiB.2021.1-4.1
Section
Artykuły

References

1. Aaker D. [2003], Building strong brands, The Free Press, New York.
2. Aaker D., Joachimsthaler E. [2000], Brand leadership, The Free Press, New York.
3. Aaker D.A. [1996], Measuring brand equity across products and markets, „California Management Review”, 38(3), s. 102–120, https://doi.org/10.2307/41165845
4. Adams W.C. [2015], Conducting semi-structured interviews, w: Handbook of practical program evaluation, red. J.S. Wholey, H.P. Harty, K.E. Newcomer, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
5. Adamska L., Fuszara M., Ruminska-Zimny E., Baczewski G. [2014], Więcej równości – więcej korzyści w gospodarce. Kobiety i mężczyźni na stanowiskach decyzyjnych w polskiej gospodarce w latach 2010–2013, Ministerstwo Pracy i Polityki Społecznej, Warszawa.
6. Alghawi I., Yan J., Wei C. [2014], Professional or interactive: CEO’s image strategies in the microblogging context, „Computers in Human Behavior”, vol. 41, s. 184–189.
7. Baker T.L. [1994], Doing social research, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
8. Bartol K.M [1980], Female managers and quality of working life: The impact of sex role stereotypes, „Journal of Occupational Behavior”, vol. 1, s. 205–221.
9. Baskiewicz N. [2013], Kobiety w zarządzaniu organizacjami, „Studia Ekonomiczne”, 161, s. 27–35.
10. Bendisch D., Larsen G., Trueman [2007], Branding people: Towards a conceptual framework, „Working Paper Series”, vol. 22, no 22, s. 3–28.
11. Bendisch F. [2011], Branding CEOs: How relationship between chief executive officers, corporate brands and stakeholders image can influence perceived brand value, University of Bradford, https://bradscholars.brad.ac.uk/handle/10454/4892
12. Bendisch F., Larsen G., Trueman M. [2013], Fame and fortune: A conceptual model of CEO brands, „European Journal of Marketing”, vol. 47, s. 596–614.
13. Berggren N., Jordahl H., Poutvaara P. [2010], The looks of a winner: Beauty and electoral success, „Journal of Public Economics”, 94(1), s. 8–15, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.11.002
14. Berkelaar B.L., Buzzanell P.M. [2015], Online employment screening and digital career capital, „Management Communication Quarterly”, vol. 29, no 1, s. 84–113.
15. Bligh M.C., Casad B.J., Schlehofer M.M., Gaffney A.M. [2012], Competent enough, but would you vote for her? Gender stereotypes and media influences on perceptions of women politicians, „Journal of Applied Social Psychology”, 42(3), s. 560–597.
16. Bohnet I. [2018], What works: Gender equality by design, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
17. Brandfog [2016], CEO, social media, and leadership: Survey report, Brandfog: Illuminate your way, USA.
18. Byerly C.M., Ross K. [2008], Women and media: A critical introduction, John Wiley & Sons, Malden.
19. Carli L.L., Alawa L., Lee Y., Zhao B., Kim E. [2016], Stereotypes about gender and science: Women not equal scientists, „Psychology of Women Quarterly”, 40(2), s. 244–260.
20. Carli L.L., Eagly A.H. [2016], Women face a labyrinth: An examination of metaphors for women leaders, „Gender in Management: An International Journal”, 31(8), s. 514–527.
21. Celia D.A., Gabaldon P. [2014], Female directors and the media: Stereotypes of board members, „Gender in Management: An International Journal”, 29(6), s. 334–351, https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-07-2013-0079
22. Cheryan S., Plaut V.C., Handron C., Hudson L. [2013], Thestereotypical computer scientist: Gendered media representations as a barrier to inclusion for women, „Sex Roles”, 69(1–2),s. 58–71, doi: 10.1007/s11199-013-0296-x
23. Collins R.L. [2011], Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and where should we go? „Sex Roles”, 64, s. 290–298.
24. Cukier W., Jackson S., Elmi M.A., Roach E., Cyr D. [2016], Representing women? Leadership roles and women in Canadian broadcast news, „Gender in Management: An International Journal”, 31(5/6), s. 374–395, doi: 10.1108/gm-04-2015-0035
25. Davis R. [2015], CEO branding. How perception defines reality, w: CEO Branding, red. M. Fetscherin, Routledge, London, s. 129–151.
26. Davis S.N. [2003], Sex stereotypes in commercials targeted toward children: A content analysis, „Sociological Spectrum”, 23, s. 407–424, doi: 10.1080/ 02732170309220
27. Doris R.E., Summers J., Carter S. [2013], Women doing their own thing: Media representations of female entrepreneurship, „International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research”, 19(5), s. 547–564, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-09-2011-0107
28. Dumont G., Ots M. [2020], Social dynamics and stakeholder relationships in personal branding, „Journal of Business Research”, 106, s. 118–128, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.09.013
29. Eagly A. [2007], Female leadership, advantage, and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions, „Psychology of Women Quarterly”, 31.
30. Eagly A., Carli L. [2007], Through the labyrinth, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.
31. Eagly A.H., Johannesen-Schmidt M.C. [2001], The leadership styles of women and men, „Journal of Social Issues”, vol. 57, no 4.
32. Eagly A.H., Karau S.J. [2002], Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders, „Psychological Review”, 109, s. 573–598, doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.109.3.573
33. Eisenchlas S.A. [2013], Gender roles and expectations, „SAGE Open”, 3(4), doi: 10.1177/2158244013506446
34. Fetscherin M. [2015], How does CEO reputation Matter? Impact of CEO reputation on corporate reputation and performance, w: CEO Branding, red. M. Fetscherin, Routledge, London.
35. Gale S.F. [2013], In e-recruiting, there’s a new ‘recruit’, „Workforce Management”, vol. 92, no 5, s. 116–127.
36. Gauntlett D. [2008], Media, gender, and identity: An introduction, Routledge, London.
37. Geis F.L., Brown V., Walstedt J.J., Porter N. [1984], TV commercials as achievement scripts for women, „Sex Roles”, 10, s. 513–525, doi: 10.1007/BF00287260
38. Getchell K.M., Beitelspacher L.S. [2020], Better marketing for female marketers: Gendered language in the Forbes CMO list, Business Horizons, doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2020.04.004
39. Gill R., Gill R.M. [2007], Gender and the media, Polity Press, Cambridge.
40. Goffman E. [1956], The presentation of self in everyday life, University of Edinburgh, Edinbourgh.
41. Gorbatov S., Khapova S.N., Lysova E.I. [2019], Get noticed to get ahead: The impact of personal branding on career success, „Frontiers in Psychology”, 10, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02662
42. Gorbatov S., Khapova S.N., Oostrom J.K., Lysova E.I. [2021], Personal brand equity: Scale development and validation, „Personnel Psychology”, 74(3), s. 505–542, https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12412
43. Górska A. [2016], Personal branding through LinkedIn, w: The impact of the digital world on management and marketing, red. G. Mazurek, J. Tkaczyk, Poltext, Warszawa.
44. Górska A. [2017], Perception of women in top managerial positions in Poland, „Journal of Business and Administration. Central Europe”, vol. 25, s. 16–32.
45. Górska A. [2021], The true or idealized self: How CEOs build their personal brands?, „Central European Management Journal” (w druku).
46. Górska A., Korzynski P., Mazurek G., Pucciarelli F. [2020], The role of social media in scholarly collaboration: An enabler of international research team’s activation?, „Journal of Global Information Technology Management”, 23(4), s. 273–291, doi: 10.1080/1097198X.2020.1817684
47. Grant Thornton [2018], Polski biznes silny kobietami, http://grantthornton.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Polski-biznessilny-kobietami-informacja-prasowa-GRANT-THORN-TON03-08-2018.docx, dostęp: 4.02.2021.
48. Hearn A. [2008], Meat, mask, burden: Probing the contours of the branded self, „Journal of Consumer Culture”, 8(2), s. 197–217.
49. Heilman M.E. [1994], Affirmative action: Some unintended consequences for working women, w: Research in organizational behavior, red. B. Straw, L. Cummings, JAI Press, Greenwich.
50. Heilman M.E., Block C.J., Martell R.F. [1995], Sex stereotypes: Do they influence perceptions of managers?, „Journal of Social Behavior and Personality”, 10, s. 237–252.
51. Heilman M.E., Parks-Stamm E.J. [2007], Gender stereotypes in the workplace: Obstacles to women’s career progress, „Advances in Group Processes”, doi: 10.1016/s0882-6145(07)24003-2
52. Heilman M.E., Saruwatari L.R. [1979], When beauty is beastly: The effects of appearance and sex on evaluations of job applicants for managerial and nonmanagerial jobs, „Organizational Behavior and Human Performance”, 23(3), s. 360–372, https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(79)90003-5
53. Humprecht E., Esser F. [2017], A glass ceiling in the online age? Explaining the underrepresentation of women in online political news, „European Journal of Communication”, 32(5), s. 439–456, doi: 10.1177/0267323117720343
54. Jacobson J. [2020], You are a brand: Social media managers’ personal branding and the future audience, „Journal of Product & Brand Management”, 29(6), s. 715–727.
55. Jia S., Lansdall-Welfare T., Sudhahar S., Carter C., Cristianini N. [2016], Women are seen more than heard in online newspapers, „PLOS ONE”, 11(2), doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148434
56. Jin C.H., Yeo H.C. [2011], Satisfaction, corporate credibility, CEO reputation and leadership effects on public relationships, „Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing”, vol. 19, s. 127–140.
57. Johnson K.M. [2017], The importance of personal branding in social media: Educating students to create and manage their personal brand, „International Journal of Education and Social Science”, 4(1), s. 21–27.
58. Kapferer J.N. [1997], Strategic brand management, Creating and sustaining brand equity long term, Kogan Page, London.
59. Karau S., Eagly A. [1999], Invited reaction: Gender, social roles, and the emergence of leaders, „Human Resource Development Quarterly”, vol. 10, no 4.
60. Keller K. [1993], Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity, „Journal of Marketing”, 57(1), s. 1–22.
61. Keller K. [2008], Strategic brand management: A European perspective, Pearson Education, Harlow.
62. Kellerman B., Rhode D.L. [2009], Women and leadership: The state of play and strategies for change, „Canadian Public Administration”, vol. 52, iss. 2.
63. Kirsch A. [2018], The gender composition of corporate boards: a review and research agenda, „The Leadership Quarterly”, 29(2), s. 346–364, doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.06.001
64. Koenig A.M., Eagly A.H., Mitchell A.A., Ristikari T. [2011], Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms, „Psychological Bulletin”, 137, s. 616–642, doi: 10.1037/a0023557
65. Korzyński P. [2018], Przywództwo w erze cyfrowej. Sposoby pokonywania ograniczeń na platformach społecznościowych, Kozminski University, Warszawa.
66. Kucharska W. [2018], Personal brand value and social media. The top football players case, w: Innovation management and education excellence through vision 2020, red. K.S. Soliman, International Business Information Management Association (IBIMA), s. 605–614.
67. Kucharska W., Mikołajczak P. [2017], Personal branding of artists and art-designers: Necessity or desire?, „Journal of Product and Brand Management”, 27(3), s. 249–261.
68. Labrecque L.I., Markos E., Milne G.R [2011], Online personal branding: Processes, challenges and implications, „Journal of Interactive Marketing”, 25(1), s. 37–50.
69. Lair D., Sullivan K., Cheney G. [2005], Marketization and the recasting of the professional self, „Management Communication Quarterly”, 18(3), s. 307–343.
70. Läämsä A.M., Tiensuu T. [2002], Representations of the woman leader in Finnish business media articles, „Business Ethics: A European Review”, 11(4), s. 363–374. doi: 10.1111/1467-8608.00296
71. Lee S., Pitesa M., Pillutla M., Thau S. [2015], When beauty helps and when it hurts: An organizational context model of attractiveness discrimination in selection decisions, „Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes”, 128, s. 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.02.003
72. Little A.C., Burriss R.P., Jones B.C., Roberts S.C. [2007], Facial appearance affects voting decisions, „Evolution of Human Behavior”, 28, s. 18–27.
73. Malhotra C.K., Malhotra A. [2016], How CEOs can leverage twitter, „MIT Sloan Management Review”, 57(2), s. 73, https://sloanreview.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/298f9b44201.pdf
74. Massé M.A., Rosenblum K. [1988], Male and female created they them: The depiction of gender in the advertising of traditional women’s and men’s magazines, „Women’s Studies International Forum”, 11(2), s. 127–144, https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-5395(88)90044-1
75. Mazurek G., Gorska A., Korzynski P., Silva S. [2020], Social networking sites and researcher’s success, „Journal of Computer Information Systems”, doi: 10.1080/08874417.2020.1783724
76. McCorkle D.E., Joe F.A., Memo F.D. [1992], Developing self-marketing skills for student career success, „Journal of Marketing Education”, 14(1), s. 57–67.
77. McCorkle D.E., McCorkle Y.L. [2012], Using LinkedIn in the marketing classroom: Exploratory insights and recommendations for teaching social media/networking, „Marketing Education Review”, 22(2), s. 157–166.
78. McKinsey [2020], Women in the workplace 2020, https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/women--in-the-workplace, dostęp: 12.02.2021.
79. Milbourn T.T. [2003], CEO reputation and stock-based compensation, „Journal of Financial Economics”, vol. 68, s. 233–262.
80. Nguyen-Dang B. [2005], Is more news good news? Media coverage of CEOs, firm value, and rent extraction, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=800746, dostęp: 12.02.2021.
81. Oyserman D. [2009], Identity-based motivation: Implications for action-readiness, procedural-readiness, and consumer behavior, „Journal of Consumer Psychology”, 19(3), s. 250–260.
82. Parmentier M.A., Fischer E., Reuber A. [2013], Positioning personal brands in established organizational fields, „Academy of Marketing Science”, 41(1), s. 373–387.
83. Peters T. [1997], The brand called you, „Fast Company”, vol. 10, s. 83–89.
84. Porter M.C., Anderson B., Nhotsavang M. [2015], Anti-social media: Executive Twitter ‘engagement’ and attitudes about media credibility, „Journal of Communication Management”, 19(3), s. 270–287.
85. Powell G.N., Butterfield D.A. [1984], If ‚good managers’ are masculine, what are ‚bad managers’?, „Sex Roles”, vol. 10, s. 477–484, doi: 10.1007/bf00287256
86. Powell G.N., Butterfield D.A. [1989], The ‚good manager’: Did androgyny fare better in the 1980s?, „Group & Organization Studies”, vol. 14, s. 216–233, doi: 10.1177/105960118901400209
87. Prentice D.A., Carranza E. [2002], What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes, „Psychology of Women Quarterly”, 26, s. 269–281.
88. Prime J.L., Carter N.M., Welbourne T.M. [2009], Women “take care”, men “take charge”: Managers’ stereotypic perceptions of women and men leaders, „The Psychologist-Manager Journal”, 12(1), s. 25–49, doi: 10.1080/10887150802371799
89. Rein I., Kotler P., Stoller M. [2006], High visibility: The making and marketing of professionals into celebrities, 3rd ed., NTC Business Books, Lincolnwood.
90. Riessman C.K. [1993], Narrative analysis, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
91. Robinson G., Saint-Jean A. [1995], The portrayal of women politicians in the media, w: Gendered politics in contemporary Canada, red. F.P. Gingras, Oxford University Press, Toronto, Canada.
92. Rockefeller Foundation [2016], CEOs & gender: A media analysis, https://www.globalstrategygroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/100x25-CEOS-Gender-Report.pdf, dostęp: 19.02.2020.
93. Roffler R.F. [2002], Make a name for Yourself Eight steps every woman needs to create a personal brand strategy for success, New York, Broadway.
94. Rudman L.A., Glick P. [2001], Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women, „Journal of Social Issues”, 57, s. 743–762.
95. Rumsey N., Harcourt D. [2012], The Oxford handbook of the psychology of appearance, Oxford UP, Oxford.
96. „Rzeczpospolita” ranking [2018], http://www.rp.pl/Marki-Polskie/301259825-Mocne-krajowe-marki-wspieraja-polska-gospodarke.html, dostęp: 10.03.2021.
97. Schawbel D. [2009], Personal branding 2.0. Cztery kroki do zbudowania osobistej marki, OnePress, Warszawa.
98. Schein V.E. [1973], The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics, „Journal of Applied Psychology”, 57, s. 95–100, doi: 10.1037/h0037128
99. Schein V.E. [2001], A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management, „Journal of Social Issues”, 57(4).
100. Schein V.E. [2007], Women in management: Reflections and projections, „Women in Management Review”, 22(1), s. 6–18, https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420710726193
101. Schein V.E., Davidson M.J. [1993], Think manager, think male, „Management Development Review”, 6(3).
102. Schein V.E., Mueller R., Lituchy T., Liu J. [1996], Think manager-think male: A global phenomenon?, „Journal of Organizational Behavior”, 17, s. 33–41, doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1379(199601)17:13.0.co;2-f
103. Shaker F., Hafiz R. [2014], Personal branding in online platform, „Global Disclosure of Economics and Business”, 3(3), s. 7–20.
104. Shepherd I. [2005], From cattle to coke to Charlie: Meeting the challenges of self-marketing and personal branding, „Journal of Marketing Management”, 21(5), s. 589–606.
105. Shor E., van de Rijt A., Miltsov A., Kulkarni V., Skiena S. [2015], A paper ceiling, „American Sociological Review”, 80(5), s. 960–984, doi: 10.1177/0003122415596999
106. Simon S., Hoyt C.L. [2012], Exploring the effect of media images on women’s leadership self-perceptions and aspirations, „Group Processes & Intergroup Relations”, 16(2), s. 232–245, doi: 10.1177/1368430212451176
107. Singh V., Vinnicombe S. [2004], Why so few women directors in top UK boardrooms? Evidence and theoretical explanations, „Corporate Governance: An International Review”, 12(4), s. 479–488, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8683.2004.00388.x
108. Slatton B.C., Brailey C.D. [2019], Women and inequality in the 21st Century, Routledge, London.
109. Strauss A., Corbin J. [1998], Basics of qualitative research: Procedures and techniques for developing grounded theory, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.
110. Sung C.M. [2013], Media representations of gender and leadership: From a discourse perspective, „Brno Studies in English”, 39(1), s. 89–105, doi: 10.5817/bse2013-1-5
111. Tabassum N., Nayak B.S. [2021], Gender stereotypes and their impact on women’s career progressions from a managerial perspective, „IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review”, 10(2), s. 192–208.
112. Teele D.L., Kalla J., Rosenbluth F. [2018], The ties that double bind: Social roles and women’s underrepresentation in politics, „American Political Science Review”, 112(3), s. 525–541, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000217
113. Teijlingen van E., Rennie A.M., Hundley V., Graham W. [2001], The importance of conducting and reporting pilot studies: The example of the Scottish Births Survey, „Journal of Advanced Nursing”, 34, s. 289–295.
114. Thompson-Whiteside H., Turnbull S., Howe-Walsh L. [2018], Developing an authentic personal brand using impression management behaviors: Exploring female entrepreneurs’ experiences, „Qualitative Market Research”, 21(2), s.166–181.
115. Vallas S.P., Cummins E.R. [2015], Personal branding and identity norms in the popular business press: Enterprise culture in an age of precarity, „Organization Studies”, 36(3), s. 293–319, https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840614563741
116. Van der Pas D.J., Aaldering L. [2020], Gender differences in political media coverage: A meta-analysis, „Journal of Communication”, 70(1), s. 114–143, https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqz046
117. Vogel D.L., Wester S.R., Heesacker M., Madon S. [2003], Confirming gender stereotypes: A social role perspective, „Sex Roles”, 48(11–12), s. 519, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023575212526
118. Vos D. [2013], The vertical glass ceiling: Explaining female politicians’ underrepresentation in television news, „Communications”, 38(4), doi: 10.1515/commun-2013-0023
119. Vosloban R. [2014], Employee’s personal branding as a competitive advantage – a managerial approach, „The International Journal of Management Science and Information Technology”, vol. 2, s. 290–294.
120. Walsh C. [2015], Media capital or media deficit?, „Feminist Media Studies”, 15(6), s. 1025–1034, doi: 10.1080/14680777.2015.1087415
121. Williams J., Mavin S., Stead V., Elliott C. [2016], Gender, media, and organization: Challenging Mis(s)representations of women leaders and managers, IAP.
122. Wojtaszczyk K., Maszewski F. [2014], Różnorodność metod zarządzania marką osobistą, „Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu”, 1(349), s. 454–462.
123. Wolf N. [1990], The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women, Vintage Books, London.
124. Wood J.T. [1994], Gendered media: The influence of media on views of gender, „Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture”, 9, s. 231–244.
125. Yue C.A., Chung Y.J., Kelleher T., Bradshaw A.S., Ferguson M.A. [2020], How CEO social media disclosure and gender affect perceived CEO attributes, relationship investment, and engagement intention, „Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly”, 107769902094352, doi: 10.1177/1077699020943521
126. Zide J., Elman B., Shahani-Denning C. [2014], LinkedIn and recruitment: How profiles differ across occupations, „Employee Relations”, 36(5), s. 583–604, doi: 10.1108/er-07-2013-0086