Zarys historii regulacji finansowania kampanii wyborczych w USA
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Abstract
The article presents the history of the US campaign finance law. It describes acts passed by the Congress, starting from the Tillman Act of 1907, followed among others by Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and finished with McCain-Feingold Act of 2002. There are also described the most important decisions of the US Supreme Court related to the campaign finance including Newberry vs. United States (256 U. S. 232 (1921)), Buckley v. Valeo (424 U. S. 1 (1976)), McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (540 U. S. 93 (2003)) Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (130 S. Ct. 876 (2010)) of 2010. The paper also how has changed the attitude of the Supreme Court towards campaign finance regulation The article also recalls the historical events, such as Teapot Dome Scandal and Watergate, that were important stimuli for passing new law by the Congress. The background of the Supreme Court decisions is also provided.
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Misiuna, J. (2011). Zarys historii regulacji finansowania kampanii wyborczych w USA. Kwartalnik Kolegium Ekonomiczno-Społecznego. Studia I Prace, (1), 203–221. https://doi.org/10.33119/KKESSiP.2011.1.8
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References
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BCRA, sec. 201 (a).
BCRA, sec. 311.
Bennett L., One Lesson From History: Appointment of Special Counsel and the Investigation of the Teapot Dome Scandal, The Brookings Institution, 1999, http://www.brookings.edu/gs/ic/teapotdome/teapotdome.htm, 03.01.2011.
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Cigler A., B. Loomis, American Politics: Classic and Contemporary Readings, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston-New York 2008, s. 245.
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Corrado A., Money and Politics: A History of Federal Campaign Finance Law, w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado, A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 28.
Davis B., Teapot Dome Scandal: Corruption Rocks 1920s America, Compass Point Books, 2007.
Eichenwald K., Conspiracy of fools: a true story, Broadway Books, New York 2006.
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Gill D., Soft Money and Hard Choices: Why Political Parties Might Legislate Against Soft Money Donations, "Public Choice" Vol. 123, Nr 3-4, 2005, s. 411-438, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1422616, 03.01.2011.
Harmon A., Hillary: The Movie. Corporate Free Speech or Campaign Finance Corruption?, "Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy Sidebar" Vol. 5, 25.03.2009, s. 337-338.
Hatch Political Activity Act: An Act to prevent pernicious political activities, 1939, 53 Stat. 1147 (August 2, 1939), http://www.historycentral.com/documents/hatchact.html, 03.01.2011.
Levitt J., Confronting the impact of Citizens United, "Yale Law & Policy Review" Vol. 29, Nr 1, Fall 2010.
Levitt J., Confronting the impact of Citizens United, Loyola-Los Angeles Legal Studies Paper Nr 2010- 39, s. 4.
Ławniczak A., Finansowanie partii politycznych, Wyd. Sejmowe, Warszawa 2001, s. 43-62.
McCartney L. The Teapot Dome Scandal: How Big Oil Bought the Harding White House and Tried to Steal the Country, Random House, 2009.
McConnell v. Federal Election Commission, 540 U. S. 93 (2003), http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/02-1674. ZS.html, 03.01.2011.
Mucha B., Finansowanie kampanii wyborczych do legislatur stanowych w systemie federalnym Stanów Zjednoczonych, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2010, s. 47.
Nassmacher K. H., Analiza porównawcza finansowania partii politycznych w ustabilizowanych demokracjach, w: Kulisy finansowania polityki, red. M. Walicki, Wyd. Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2002,s. 15.
Nelson W., Rishikof H., Messinger I., Jo M., The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation?, "Vanderbilt Law Review" Vol. 62, 30.11.2009, s. 1749-1814.
Newberry vs. United States, 256 U. S. 232 (1921), http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/US/256/256.US.232.559.html, 03.01.2011.
Noggle B., Teapot Dome: Oil and politics in the 1920s, W. W. Norton & Company, 1965.
Pinto-Duschinsky M., Pieniądze a polityka w reżimie demokratycznym, w: Kulisy finansowania polityki, red. M. Walicki, Wyd. Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2002, s. 91.
Pinto-Duschinsky M., Rola pieniędzy politycznych, w: Finansowanie polityki. Wybory, pieniądze, partie polityczne, red. M. Walecki, Wyd. Sejmowe, Warszawa 2000, s. 19.
Reilly J, Hull C., Braig Allen B., IRC 501 (c) 4 Organizations, s. I-2, Internal Revenue Service: http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-tege/eotopici03.pdf, 03.01.2011.
Rinner W. J., Maximizing participation through campaign finance regulation: a cap and trade mechanism for political money, "The Yale Law Journal" Vol. 119, Iss. 5, March 2010, s. 1064.
Roosevelt T., Fith Annual Message, December 5, 1905.
Roosevelt T., Sixth Annual Message, December 3, 1906.
Rutkow L., Vernick J., Teret S., The Potential Health Effects of Citizens United, "The New England Journal of Medicine" Vol. 362, Nr 15, 15.04.2010, s. 1356.
Shapiro C., The Law Clerk Proxy Wars: Secrecy, Accountability, and Ideology in the Supreme Court, "Florida State University Law Review" Vol. 37, Nr 1, 2009, s. 101-136.
Snyder B., The Judicial Genealogy (and Mythology) of John Roberts: Clerkships from Gray to Brandeis to Friendly to Roberts, "Ohio State Law Journal" Vol. 71, Nr 5, 2010, s. 1149-1243.
Spulak T., Citizens United ruling can enhance a corporations lobbying efforts, "The Hill" 16.02.2010, http://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/k-street-insiders/k-street-insiders/81367-citizens-united-ruling-can-enhance-a-corporations-lobbying-efforts, 03.01.2011.
Stiglitz J., Demokracja specjalnych interesów, w: A. Domosławski, Ameryka zbuntowana. Siedemnaście dialogów o ciemnych stronach imperium wolności, Wyd. Świat Książki, Warszawa 2007, s. 119.
The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act (ch. 27, 22 Stat. 403).
Tillman Act of 1907, w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 36.
United States Code, Title 2, Art. 431 (4).
United States vs. Classic, 313 U. S. 299 (1941), http://supreme.justia.com/us/313/299/case.html,03.01.2011.
von Clausewitz C., On War, Everyman's Library, David Campbell Publishers Ltd., London 1993, s. 99.
Walker Wilson M., Too Much of a Good Thing: Money after Citizes United, Saint Louis University Legal Studies Research Paper Series Nr 2010-26.
Walker Wilson M., Too Much of a Good Thing: Money after Citizes United "Cardozo Law Review" Vol. 31, Nr 6, June 2010, s. 2365.
Ward G., Transparency in Money in Politics: A Comparison of United States and Canada, w: The Delicate Balance Between Political Equity and Freedom of Expression. Political Party and Campaign Financing in Canada and the United States, red. S. Griner, D. Zovatto, Organization of American States, International IDEA, Washington 2005, s. 26.
Wilkas S., Finansowanie partii politycznych przez duże korporacje, w: Finansowanie polityki w Polsce na tle europejskim, red. M. Chmaj, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2008, s. 164.
Wisconsin Right to Life, http://www.wrtl.org/, 03.01.2011.
Wiszniowski R., Marketing wyborczy. Studium kampanii wyborczych w systemach prezydenckich i semiprezydenckich (Finlandia, Francja, Polska, Stany Zjednoczone), Wyd. Nauk. PWN, Warszawa-Wrocław 2000, s. 94.
1940 Amendments to the Hatch Act, 54 Stat. 767 (July 19, 1940), w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 47-48.
American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29546, 03.01.2011.
Ansolabehere S., de Figueiredo J., Snyder Jr J., Why is there so little money in US politics, s. 6, http://web.mit.edu/polisci/research/representation/CF_JEP_Final.pdf, 03.01.2011.
Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, 494 U. S. 652 (1990), http://supreme.justia.com/us/494/652/case.html, 03.01.2011.
BCRA, sec. 201 (a).
BCRA, sec. 311.
Bennett L., One Lesson From History: Appointment of Special Counsel and the Investigation of the Teapot Dome Scandal, The Brookings Institution, 1999, http://www.brookings.edu/gs/ic/teapotdome/teapotdome.htm, 03.01.2011.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, 116 Stat. 81 (March 27, 2002), dokument dostępny na stronie US Government Printing Office: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ155/pdf/PLAW-107publ155.pdf, 03.01.2011.
Boos M., Declaration of Michael Boos, on behalf of Citizens United and Citizens United Political Victory Found s. 1, http://www.lawandfreedom.com/site/election/Witness/Boos.pdf, 03.01.2011.
Brandeis L., Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It, Stokes, New York 1914, http://www.law.louisville.edu/library/collections/brandeis/node/191, 03.01.2011.
Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U. S. 1 (1976), http://supreme.justia.com/us/424/1/case.html, 03.01.2011.
Butrymowicz D., Loophole.com: how the FEC's failure to fully regulate the Internet undermines campaign finance law, "Columbia Law Review" Vol. 109, Nr 7, November 2009, s. 1712.
Center for Responsive Politics, http://www.opensecrets.org, 03.01.2011.
Chmaj M., Finansowanie partii politycznych, w: Finansowanie polityki w Polsce na tle europejskim, red. M. Chmaj, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2008, s. 164.
Cigler A., B. Loomis, American Politics: Classic and Contemporary Readings, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston-New York 2008, s. 245.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 130 S. Ct. 876 (2010), http://supreme.justia.com/us/558/08-205/index.html, 03.01.2011.
Corrado A., Money and Politics: A History of Federal Campaign Finance Law, w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado, A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 28.
Davis B., Teapot Dome Scandal: Corruption Rocks 1920s America, Compass Point Books, 2007.
Eichenwald K., Conspiracy of fools: a true story, Broadway Books, New York 2006.
Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1910, w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado, A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 37-38.
Federal Corrupt Practices Act, 1925, 43 Stat. 1070 (February 28, 1925), w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 42-46.
Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974: A Summary, w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 53-55.
Federal Election Campaign Laws, Federal Election Commission, Washington 2008.
Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc., 551 U. S. 449 (2007), http://supreme.justia.com/us/551/06-969/, 03.01.2011.
Federal Election Commission: http://www.fec.gov/law/law.shtml.
First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 U. S. 765 (1978), http://supreme.justia.com/us/435/765/case.html, 03.01.2011.
Gill D., Soft Money and Hard Choices: Why Political Parties Might Legislate Against Soft Money Donations, "Public Choice" Vol. 123, Nr 3-4, 2005, s. 411-438, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1422616, 03.01.2011.
Harmon A., Hillary: The Movie. Corporate Free Speech or Campaign Finance Corruption?, "Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy Sidebar" Vol. 5, 25.03.2009, s. 337-338.
Hatch Political Activity Act: An Act to prevent pernicious political activities, 1939, 53 Stat. 1147 (August 2, 1939), http://www.historycentral.com/documents/hatchact.html, 03.01.2011.
Levitt J., Confronting the impact of Citizens United, "Yale Law & Policy Review" Vol. 29, Nr 1, Fall 2010.
Levitt J., Confronting the impact of Citizens United, Loyola-Los Angeles Legal Studies Paper Nr 2010- 39, s. 4.
Ławniczak A., Finansowanie partii politycznych, Wyd. Sejmowe, Warszawa 2001, s. 43-62.
McCartney L. The Teapot Dome Scandal: How Big Oil Bought the Harding White House and Tried to Steal the Country, Random House, 2009.
McConnell v. Federal Election Commission, 540 U. S. 93 (2003), http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/02-1674. ZS.html, 03.01.2011.
Mucha B., Finansowanie kampanii wyborczych do legislatur stanowych w systemie federalnym Stanów Zjednoczonych, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2010, s. 47.
Nassmacher K. H., Analiza porównawcza finansowania partii politycznych w ustabilizowanych demokracjach, w: Kulisy finansowania polityki, red. M. Walicki, Wyd. Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2002,s. 15.
Nelson W., Rishikof H., Messinger I., Jo M., The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation?, "Vanderbilt Law Review" Vol. 62, 30.11.2009, s. 1749-1814.
Newberry vs. United States, 256 U. S. 232 (1921), http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/US/256/256.US.232.559.html, 03.01.2011.
Noggle B., Teapot Dome: Oil and politics in the 1920s, W. W. Norton & Company, 1965.
Pinto-Duschinsky M., Pieniądze a polityka w reżimie demokratycznym, w: Kulisy finansowania polityki, red. M. Walicki, Wyd. Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2002, s. 91.
Pinto-Duschinsky M., Rola pieniędzy politycznych, w: Finansowanie polityki. Wybory, pieniądze, partie polityczne, red. M. Walecki, Wyd. Sejmowe, Warszawa 2000, s. 19.
Reilly J, Hull C., Braig Allen B., IRC 501 (c) 4 Organizations, s. I-2, Internal Revenue Service: http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-tege/eotopici03.pdf, 03.01.2011.
Rinner W. J., Maximizing participation through campaign finance regulation: a cap and trade mechanism for political money, "The Yale Law Journal" Vol. 119, Iss. 5, March 2010, s. 1064.
Roosevelt T., Fith Annual Message, December 5, 1905.
Roosevelt T., Sixth Annual Message, December 3, 1906.
Rutkow L., Vernick J., Teret S., The Potential Health Effects of Citizens United, "The New England Journal of Medicine" Vol. 362, Nr 15, 15.04.2010, s. 1356.
Shapiro C., The Law Clerk Proxy Wars: Secrecy, Accountability, and Ideology in the Supreme Court, "Florida State University Law Review" Vol. 37, Nr 1, 2009, s. 101-136.
Snyder B., The Judicial Genealogy (and Mythology) of John Roberts: Clerkships from Gray to Brandeis to Friendly to Roberts, "Ohio State Law Journal" Vol. 71, Nr 5, 2010, s. 1149-1243.
Spulak T., Citizens United ruling can enhance a corporations lobbying efforts, "The Hill" 16.02.2010, http://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/k-street-insiders/k-street-insiders/81367-citizens-united-ruling-can-enhance-a-corporations-lobbying-efforts, 03.01.2011.
Stiglitz J., Demokracja specjalnych interesów, w: A. Domosławski, Ameryka zbuntowana. Siedemnaście dialogów o ciemnych stronach imperium wolności, Wyd. Świat Książki, Warszawa 2007, s. 119.
The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act (ch. 27, 22 Stat. 403).
Tillman Act of 1907, w: Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook, red. A. Corrado, D. Ortiz, F. Sorauf, T. Mann and T. Potter, Brookings Institution Press, Washington 1997, s. 36.
United States Code, Title 2, Art. 431 (4).
United States vs. Classic, 313 U. S. 299 (1941), http://supreme.justia.com/us/313/299/case.html,03.01.2011.
von Clausewitz C., On War, Everyman's Library, David Campbell Publishers Ltd., London 1993, s. 99.
Walker Wilson M., Too Much of a Good Thing: Money after Citizes United, Saint Louis University Legal Studies Research Paper Series Nr 2010-26.
Walker Wilson M., Too Much of a Good Thing: Money after Citizes United "Cardozo Law Review" Vol. 31, Nr 6, June 2010, s. 2365.
Ward G., Transparency in Money in Politics: A Comparison of United States and Canada, w: The Delicate Balance Between Political Equity and Freedom of Expression. Political Party and Campaign Financing in Canada and the United States, red. S. Griner, D. Zovatto, Organization of American States, International IDEA, Washington 2005, s. 26.
Wilkas S., Finansowanie partii politycznych przez duże korporacje, w: Finansowanie polityki w Polsce na tle europejskim, red. M. Chmaj, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2008, s. 164.
Wisconsin Right to Life, http://www.wrtl.org/, 03.01.2011.
Wiszniowski R., Marketing wyborczy. Studium kampanii wyborczych w systemach prezydenckich i semiprezydenckich (Finlandia, Francja, Polska, Stany Zjednoczone), Wyd. Nauk. PWN, Warszawa-Wrocław 2000, s. 94.