The treatment of irregular migrants during COVID-19: A comparative analysis of Italian and Portuguese responses

Salvatore FP Barillà; Alberto Pellicanò

doi:10.33119/KSzPP/2020.4.7

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Celem artykułu jest porównanie nadzwyczajnego prawa imigracyjnego przyjętego we Włoszech i Portugalii. W artykule podjęto próbę wskazania zależności między integracją a prawem, opierając się na analizie włoskiego i portugalskiego podejścia do polityki imigracyjnej w czasie pandemii COVID-19. Włochy i Portugalia, dwa południowe państwa członkowskie UE o różnych podejściach do polityki imigracyjnej, stanowią ciekawy problem badawczy. Zastosowano interdyscyplinarne podejście badawcze, które umożliwia wypełnienie celu postawionego przez autorów na podstawie literatury prawnej i politologicznej. W artykule podjęto także próbę oceny, czy obecnie stosowane środki wpisują się w politykę regularyzacji, wdrażaną od dekady. Oceniając powiązania między prawem a integracją, uznano, że w obu państwach zostały przyjęte nadzwyczajne regulacje sprzyjające imigrantom i gwarantujące im równy dostęp do opieki zdrowotnej w czasie pandemii. Wskazane jest prowadzenie dalszych badań empirycznych.

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migracja Włochy Portugalia COVID-19 integracja prawo migration Italy Portugal COVID-19 integration law

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Czasopismo „Studia z Polityki Publicznej/Public Policy Studies” zapewnia dostęp do treści artykułów w trybie otwartego dostępu (Open Access) na zasadach licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa 4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY 4.0).

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Więcej informacji: Polityka Open Access czasopisma "Studia z Polityki Publicznej/Public Policy Studies"

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Barillà, S. F. i Pellicanò, A. (2020) „Stosunek do nieregularnych imigrantów w czasie pandemii COVID-19. Analiza porównawcza podejść włoskiego i portugalskiego”, Studia z Polityki Publicznej, 7(4(28), s. 123–138. doi: 10.33119/KSzPP/2020.4.7.

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Referencje

Alto Comissariado para as Migraęoes (2020). ACM. Retrieved from: https://www.acm.gov.pt/inicio (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Approvazione del documento programmatico relativo alla politica dell'immigrazione e degli stranieri nel territorio dello Stato, a norma dell'art. 3 della legge 6 marzo 1998, n. 40, Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica (1998).
Baldwin-Edwards, M. (1998). Where Free Markets Reign: Aliens in the Twilight Zone. South European Society and Politics, 3(3): 1-15. DOI: 10.1080/13608740308539545.
Beine, M., Burgoon, B.B., Crock, M., Gest, J., Hiscox, M., McGovern, P., Rapoport, H., Thielemann, E. (2015). Measuring immigration policies: Preliminary evidence from IMPALA. CESifo Economic Studies, 61(3-4): 527-559. DOI: 10.1093/cesifo/ifu038.
Benhabib, J. (1996). On the political economy of immigration. European Economic Review, 40 (9): 1737-1743.
Blinder, S. (2015). Imagined Immigration: The Impact of Different Meanings of 'Immigrants' in Public Opinion and Policy Debates in Britain. Political Studies, 63(1): 80-100. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.12053.
Boeri, T., Hanson, G.H., McCormick, B., Fondazione Rodolfo Debenedetti (Eds.) (2002). Immigration policy and the welfare system: A report for the Fondazione Rodolfo Debenedetti. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brick, K. (2011). Regularizations in the European Union: The contentious policy tool. Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/regularizations-european-union (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Card, D., Dustmann, C., & Preston, I. (2012). Immigration, wages, and compositional amenities. Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(1): 78-119. DOI: 10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01051.x.
Casarico, A., Facchini, G., Frattini, T. (2018). What drives the legalization of immigrants? Evidence from IRCA. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 70: 258-273. DOI: 10.1016/j. regsciurbeco.2018.01.009.
Citrin, J., Green, D.P., Muste, C., Wong, C. (1997). Public Opinion Toward Immigration Reform: The Role of Economic Motivations. The Journal of Politics, 59(3): 858-881. DOI: 10.2307/2998640.
Determina que a gestao dos atendimentos e agendamentos seja feita de forma a garantir inequivocamente os direitos de todos os cidadaos estrangeiros com processos pendentes no Servięo de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras, no ambito do COVID 19, Pub.L. No. 3863-B/2020(2020).
Disposizioni in materia di contrasto ai fenomeni del lavoro nero, dello sfruttamento del lavoro in agricoltura e di riallineamento retributivo nel settore agricolo, Pub.L. No. 199/2016, Legge (2016). Retrieved from: https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2016/11/3/16G00213/sg (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Disposizioni in materia di sicurezza pubblica, Pub.L. No. 94/2009, Law (2009).
Disposizioni urgenti in materia di ordine e sicurezza pubblica, Pub.L. No. 53/2019, Decreto legge (2019).
Disposizioni urgenti in materia di protezione internazionale e immigrazione, sicurezza pubblica, nonche' misure per la funzionalita' del Ministero dell'interno e l'organizzazione e il funzionamento dell'Agenzia nazionale per l'amministrazione e la destinazione dei beni sequestrati e confiscati alla criminalita' organizzata, Pub.L. No. 113/2018, Decreto legge (2018).
European Commission (2019a, November 21). Governance of Migrant Integration in Portugal. European Website on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices Service. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/governance/portugal (accessed: 29.07.2020).
European Commission (2019b, December 19). Governance of Migrant Integration in Italy. European Website on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/governance/italy (accessed: 29.07.2020).
European Commission (2020a). European Web Site on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/home (accessed: 29.07.2020).
European Commission (2020b, July 1). Portugal: More multilingual information on Covid-19 for migrants. European Website on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/news/portugal-more-multilingual-information-on-covid-19-for-migrants (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Facchini, G., Mayda, A.M. (2010). What Drives Immigration Policy? Evidence Based on a Survey of Governments' Officials. In: G.S. Epstein, I.N. Gang (Eds.), Frontiers of Economics and Globalization (pp. 605-648). Bingley: Emerald. DOI:10.1108/S1574-8715(2010) 0000008031.
Facchini, G., Mayda, A.M. (2018). Migration policy: Patterns, perceptions and political-economy determinants (No. 128287). World Bank. Retrieved from: https://documents.worldbank. org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/838661551283392520/migration-policy-patterns-perceptions-and-political-economy-determinants (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Facchini, G., Willmann, G. (2005). The political economy of international factor mobility. Journal of International Economics, 67(1): 201-219.
FAO (2020a). Legal considerations in the context of responses to COVID-19 to mitigate the risk of food insecurity. FAO. DOI: 10.4060/ca8615en.
FAO (2020b). Legal mechanisms to contribute to safe and secured food supply chains in times of COVID-19. FAO. DOI: 10.4060/ca9121en.
Finotelli, C., Sciortino, G. (2009). The Importance of Being Southern: The Making of Policies of Immigration Control in Italy. European Journal of Migration and Law, 11(2): 119-138. DOI: 10.1163/157181609X439998.
Gest, J., Boucher, A., Challen, S., Burgoon, B., Thielemann, E., Beine, M., McGovern, P., Crock, M., Rapoport, H., Hiscox, M. (2014). Measuring and Comparing Immigration, Asylum and Naturalization Policies Across Countries: Challenges and Solutions. Global Policy, 5(3): 261-274. DOI: 10.1111/1758-5899.12132.
Groenendijk, K. (2004). Legal Concepts of Integration in EU Migration Law. European Journal of Migration and Law, 6(2), 111-126. DOI: 10.1163/1571816042885969.
Helbling, M., Bjerre, L., Romer, F., Zobel, M. (2013). The Immigration Policies in Comparison (IMPIC) Index: The Importance of a Sound Conceptualization. Migration and Citizenship, 1(2). Retrieved from: https://faculty.sites.uci.edu/sgoodman/files/2011/03/MigCit-Newsletter-Vol1-2_Summer-2013.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Hofinger, C. (1998). Measurement and indicators of integration [Community Relations]. Directorate of Social and Economic Affairs; Council of Europe. Retrieved from: https://www.coe.int/t/dg3/migration/archives/documentation/Series_Community_Relations/Measurement_indicators_integration_en.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).
II Plan for the Integration of Immigrants (PII), Pub.L. No. 74/2010, Resolution of the Council of Ministers (2010).
Implementaęao de um procedimento simplificado de instruęao dos pedidos de concessao de autorizaęao de residencia, Pub.L. No. 5793-A/2020(2020).
Italian Government (2020). Predisposizione del "decreto-flussi" in attuazione del decreto legislativo 25 luglio 1998, n. 286. Governo Italiano Presidenza Del Consiglio Dei Ministri. Retrieved from: http://www.governo.it/it/dipartimenti/dica-att-decretoflussi/9206 (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Jinkang, A. (2019, February 13). Italian Law Combating Severe Labour Exploitation in Agriculture.
Centro Piemontese Studi Africani - Centre for African Studies. Retrieved from: http://csapiemonte.it/sites/default/files/Italian%20Law%20Combating%20Severe%20Labour%20 Exploitation%20in%20Agriculture%20-%20Alagie%20Jinkang.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Legal framework of entry, permanence, exit and removal of foreigners into and out of national territory, Pub.L. No. 23/2007(2007). Retrieved from: https://www.refworld.org/docid/48e4910b2.html (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Lei de Estrangeiros, Pub.L. No. 102/2017, Lei (2017).
Llavador, H., Solano-Garda, A. (2011). Immigration policy with partisan parties. Journal of Public Economics, 95(1-2): 134-142. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.09.011.
Mayda, A.M. (2005). Who Is Against Immigration? A Cross-Country Investigation of Individual Attitudes towards Immigrants. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from: https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/docview/1698393386? accountid=10673 (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Misure urgenti in materia di salute, sostegno al lavoro e all'economia, nonche' di politiche sociali connesse all'emergenza epidemiologica da COVID-19, Pub.L. No. 34/2020, Decreto legge (2020). Retrieved from: https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2020/05/19/20G00052/sg (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Modifica alla normativa in materia di immigrazione e di asilo, Pub.L. No. 189/2002, Law (2002).
Murphy, C. (2013). Immigration, integration and the law: The intersection of domestic, EU and international legal regimes. London, New York: Ashgate.
Orrenius, P.M., Zavodny, M. (2016). Irregular immigration in the European Union. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from: https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy. is.ed.ac.uk/docview/1768394685?accountid=10673 (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Ortega, F. (2005). Immigration quotas and skill upgrading. Journal of Public Economics, 89 (9-10): 1841-1863.
Palumbo, L. (2020, June 8). The Italian Plan for Regularisation: Real progress for migrants' rights? MPC Blog Debate Migration. Retrieved from: https://blogs.eui.eu/migrationpolicycentre/italian-plan-regularisation-real-progress-migrants-rights/ (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Press Office of the Constitutional Court (2020). Decreto sicurezza: The provision barring asylum seekers from registering with the registry office is unreasonable. Retrieved from: https://www.cortecostituzionale.it/documenti/download/pdf/decreto_sicurezza_press_release_20200709190001.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Resoluęao do Conselho de Ministros n.0 63-A/2007, Pub. L. No. 63-A/2007 (2007).
SEFSTAT (2020). Evoluęao Global da Populaęao Estrangeira 1980-2019. SEFSTAT Portal de Estatistica. Retrieved from: https://sefstat.sef.pt/forms/evolucao.aspx (accessed: 29.07.2020).
Sides, J., Citrin, J. (2007). European Opinion About Immigration: The Role of Identities, Interests and Information. British Journal of Political Science, 37(3): 477-504. DOI: 10.1017/S0007123407000257.
Strategic Plan for Migration, Pub.L. No. 12-B/2015, Resolution of the Council of Ministers (2015).
Testo unico delle disposizioni concernenti la disciplina dell'immigrazione e norme sulla condizione dello straniero, 286/1998 Decreto Legislativo (1998).
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 326(2012).

Referencje

Alto Comissariado para as Migraęoes (2020). ACM. Retrieved from: https://www.acm.gov.pt/inicio (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Approvazione del documento programmatico relativo alla politica dell'immigrazione e degli stranieri nel territorio dello Stato, a norma dell'art. 3 della legge 6 marzo 1998, n. 40, Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica (1998).

Baldwin-Edwards, M. (1998). Where Free Markets Reign: Aliens in the Twilight Zone. South European Society and Politics, 3(3): 1-15. DOI: 10.1080/13608740308539545.

Beine, M., Burgoon, B.B., Crock, M., Gest, J., Hiscox, M., McGovern, P., Rapoport, H., Thielemann, E. (2015). Measuring immigration policies: Preliminary evidence from IMPALA. CESifo Economic Studies, 61(3-4): 527-559. DOI: 10.1093/cesifo/ifu038.

Benhabib, J. (1996). On the political economy of immigration. European Economic Review, 40 (9): 1737-1743.

Blinder, S. (2015). Imagined Immigration: The Impact of Different Meanings of 'Immigrants' in Public Opinion and Policy Debates in Britain. Political Studies, 63(1): 80-100. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.12053.

Boeri, T., Hanson, G.H., McCormick, B., Fondazione Rodolfo Debenedetti (Eds.) (2002). Immigration policy and the welfare system: A report for the Fondazione Rodolfo Debenedetti. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Brick, K. (2011). Regularizations in the European Union: The contentious policy tool. Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/regularizations-european-union (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Card, D., Dustmann, C., & Preston, I. (2012). Immigration, wages, and compositional amenities. Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(1): 78-119. DOI: 10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01051.x.

Casarico, A., Facchini, G., Frattini, T. (2018). What drives the legalization of immigrants? Evidence from IRCA. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 70: 258-273. DOI: 10.1016/j. regsciurbeco.2018.01.009.

Citrin, J., Green, D.P., Muste, C., Wong, C. (1997). Public Opinion Toward Immigration Reform: The Role of Economic Motivations. The Journal of Politics, 59(3): 858-881. DOI: 10.2307/2998640.

Determina que a gestao dos atendimentos e agendamentos seja feita de forma a garantir inequivocamente os direitos de todos os cidadaos estrangeiros com processos pendentes no Servięo de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras, no ambito do COVID 19, Pub.L. No. 3863-B/2020(2020).

Disposizioni in materia di contrasto ai fenomeni del lavoro nero, dello sfruttamento del lavoro in agricoltura e di riallineamento retributivo nel settore agricolo, Pub.L. No. 199/2016, Legge (2016). Retrieved from: https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2016/11/3/16G00213/sg (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Disposizioni in materia di sicurezza pubblica, Pub.L. No. 94/2009, Law (2009).

Disposizioni urgenti in materia di ordine e sicurezza pubblica, Pub.L. No. 53/2019, Decreto legge (2019).

Disposizioni urgenti in materia di protezione internazionale e immigrazione, sicurezza pubblica, nonche' misure per la funzionalita' del Ministero dell'interno e l'organizzazione e il funzionamento dell'Agenzia nazionale per l'amministrazione e la destinazione dei beni sequestrati e confiscati alla criminalita' organizzata, Pub.L. No. 113/2018, Decreto legge (2018).

European Commission (2019a, November 21). Governance of Migrant Integration in Portugal. European Website on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices Service. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/governance/portugal (accessed: 29.07.2020).

European Commission (2019b, December 19). Governance of Migrant Integration in Italy. European Website on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/governance/italy (accessed: 29.07.2020).

European Commission (2020a). European Web Site on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/home (accessed: 29.07.2020).

European Commission (2020b, July 1). Portugal: More multilingual information on Covid-19 for migrants. European Website on Integration: Migrant Integration Information and Good Practices. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/news/portugal-more-multilingual-information-on-covid-19-for-migrants (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Facchini, G., Mayda, A.M. (2010). What Drives Immigration Policy? Evidence Based on a Survey of Governments' Officials. In: G.S. Epstein, I.N. Gang (Eds.), Frontiers of Economics and Globalization (pp. 605-648). Bingley: Emerald. DOI:10.1108/S1574-8715(2010) 0000008031.

Facchini, G., Mayda, A.M. (2018). Migration policy: Patterns, perceptions and political-economy determinants (No. 128287). World Bank. Retrieved from: https://documents.worldbank. org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/838661551283392520/migration-policy-patterns-perceptions-and-political-economy-determinants (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Facchini, G., Willmann, G. (2005). The political economy of international factor mobility. Journal of International Economics, 67(1): 201-219.

FAO (2020a). Legal considerations in the context of responses to COVID-19 to mitigate the risk of food insecurity. FAO. DOI: 10.4060/ca8615en.

FAO (2020b). Legal mechanisms to contribute to safe and secured food supply chains in times of COVID-19. FAO. DOI: 10.4060/ca9121en.

Finotelli, C., Sciortino, G. (2009). The Importance of Being Southern: The Making of Policies of Immigration Control in Italy. European Journal of Migration and Law, 11(2): 119-138. DOI: 10.1163/157181609X439998.

Gest, J., Boucher, A., Challen, S., Burgoon, B., Thielemann, E., Beine, M., McGovern, P., Crock, M., Rapoport, H., Hiscox, M. (2014). Measuring and Comparing Immigration, Asylum and Naturalization Policies Across Countries: Challenges and Solutions. Global Policy, 5(3): 261-274. DOI: 10.1111/1758-5899.12132.

Groenendijk, K. (2004). Legal Concepts of Integration in EU Migration Law. European Journal of Migration and Law, 6(2), 111-126. DOI: 10.1163/1571816042885969.

Helbling, M., Bjerre, L., Romer, F., Zobel, M. (2013). The Immigration Policies in Comparison (IMPIC) Index: The Importance of a Sound Conceptualization. Migration and Citizenship, 1(2). Retrieved from: https://faculty.sites.uci.edu/sgoodman/files/2011/03/MigCit-Newsletter-Vol1-2_Summer-2013.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Hofinger, C. (1998). Measurement and indicators of integration [Community Relations]. Directorate of Social and Economic Affairs; Council of Europe. Retrieved from: https://www.coe.int/t/dg3/migration/archives/documentation/Series_Community_Relations/Measurement_indicators_integration_en.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).

II Plan for the Integration of Immigrants (PII), Pub.L. No. 74/2010, Resolution of the Council of Ministers (2010).

Implementaęao de um procedimento simplificado de instruęao dos pedidos de concessao de autorizaęao de residencia, Pub.L. No. 5793-A/2020(2020).

Italian Government (2020). Predisposizione del "decreto-flussi" in attuazione del decreto legislativo 25 luglio 1998, n. 286. Governo Italiano Presidenza Del Consiglio Dei Ministri. Retrieved from: http://www.governo.it/it/dipartimenti/dica-att-decretoflussi/9206 (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Jinkang, A. (2019, February 13). Italian Law Combating Severe Labour Exploitation in Agriculture.

Centro Piemontese Studi Africani - Centre for African Studies. Retrieved from: http://csapiemonte.it/sites/default/files/Italian%20Law%20Combating%20Severe%20Labour%20 Exploitation%20in%20Agriculture%20-%20Alagie%20Jinkang.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Legal framework of entry, permanence, exit and removal of foreigners into and out of national territory, Pub.L. No. 23/2007(2007). Retrieved from: https://www.refworld.org/docid/48e4910b2.html (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Lei de Estrangeiros, Pub.L. No. 102/2017, Lei (2017).

Llavador, H., Solano-Garda, A. (2011). Immigration policy with partisan parties. Journal of Public Economics, 95(1-2): 134-142. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.09.011.

Mayda, A.M. (2005). Who Is Against Immigration? A Cross-Country Investigation of Individual Attitudes towards Immigrants. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from: https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/docview/1698393386? accountid=10673 (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Misure urgenti in materia di salute, sostegno al lavoro e all'economia, nonche' di politiche sociali connesse all'emergenza epidemiologica da COVID-19, Pub.L. No. 34/2020, Decreto legge (2020). Retrieved from: https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2020/05/19/20G00052/sg (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Modifica alla normativa in materia di immigrazione e di asilo, Pub.L. No. 189/2002, Law (2002).

Murphy, C. (2013). Immigration, integration and the law: The intersection of domestic, EU and international legal regimes. London, New York: Ashgate.

Orrenius, P.M., Zavodny, M. (2016). Irregular immigration in the European Union. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from: https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy. is.ed.ac.uk/docview/1768394685?accountid=10673 (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Ortega, F. (2005). Immigration quotas and skill upgrading. Journal of Public Economics, 89 (9-10): 1841-1863.

Palumbo, L. (2020, June 8). The Italian Plan for Regularisation: Real progress for migrants' rights? MPC Blog Debate Migration. Retrieved from: https://blogs.eui.eu/migrationpolicycentre/italian-plan-regularisation-real-progress-migrants-rights/ (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Press Office of the Constitutional Court (2020). Decreto sicurezza: The provision barring asylum seekers from registering with the registry office is unreasonable. Retrieved from: https://www.cortecostituzionale.it/documenti/download/pdf/decreto_sicurezza_press_release_20200709190001.pdf (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Resoluęao do Conselho de Ministros n.0 63-A/2007, Pub. L. No. 63-A/2007 (2007).

SEFSTAT (2020). Evoluęao Global da Populaęao Estrangeira 1980-2019. SEFSTAT Portal de Estatistica. Retrieved from: https://sefstat.sef.pt/forms/evolucao.aspx (accessed: 29.07.2020).

Sides, J., Citrin, J. (2007). European Opinion About Immigration: The Role of Identities, Interests and Information. British Journal of Political Science, 37(3): 477-504. DOI: 10.1017/S0007123407000257.

Strategic Plan for Migration, Pub.L. No. 12-B/2015, Resolution of the Council of Ministers (2015).

Testo unico delle disposizioni concernenti la disciplina dell'immigrazione e norme sulla condizione dello straniero, 286/1998 Decreto Legislativo (1998).

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 326(2012).

Stosunek do nieregularnych imigrantów w czasie pandemii COVID-19. Analiza porównawcza podejść włoskiego i portugalskiego

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