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Abstrakt
Pandemia COVID-19 rozpoczęła się w okresie, gdy w Ugandzie miały się odbyć wybory prezydenckie i parlamentarne, co stanowiło wyzwanie dla bezpieczeństwa ludności. Partia rządząca (Narodowy Ruch Oporu) stanęła wobec sytuacji przekazania władzy przewodniczącemu parlamentu, gdyby wybory miały się nie odbyć. Aby złagodzić problemy związane ze zdrowiem publicznym i utrzymać władzę, rząd zgodził się na proces wyborczy bez kampanii publicznych. Zamiast tego miały zostać przeprowadzone kampanie w radiu, telewizji i mediach społecznościowych, w tak zwanych "wyborach naukowych". Jednak w kraju ogarniętym masową korupcją polityczną i biurokratyczną oraz z zakorzenionym reżimem, który stosuje przemoc wobec przeciwników, niewiele uwagi poświęcono sprawiedliwości tego procesu, zwłaszcza w kwestii dostępu opozycji do zasobów medialnych. I odwrotnie, ponieważ w wyborach chodzi o tłumy i popisy, Ugandyjska Komisja Wyborcza zmagała się z ciągle ewoluującym procesem kampanii wyborczej, zwłaszcza że na szlaku kampanii kandydatów politycznych pojawiły się spore spontaniczne tłumy. Opozycja potrzebuje dużego tłumu dla legitymizacji i pokazania popularności. Partia rządząca użyła przemocy wobec członków opozycji pod pretekstem egzekwowania standardowych procedur operacyjnych w celu zapobiegania COVID-19, ale jej kandydaci mogli gromadzić tłumy. Doprowadziło to do radykalizacji części opozycji, która wykorzystywała media do wzywania do przemocy i czystek etnicznych. Opisane w artykule badanie jakościowe sprawdza, w jakim stopniu proces "wyborów naukowych" został zaprojektowany w celu uzyskania sprawiedliwego wyniku wyborów w 2021 r. w Ugandzie. Badanie wykorzystuje teorię racjonalnego wyboru do zbadania kalkulacji różnych interesariuszy. Opiera się na danych wtórnych, zwłaszcza doniesieniach medialnych, ale także na danych pierwotnych z raportów, mediów społecznościowych i przemówień kluczowych postaci ze sceny politycznej Ugandy. Z badania wynika, że niezależna komisja wyborcza miała do czynienia z dwoma wysoce wyrafinowanymi przeciwnikami i nie miała możliwości ani sprawczości do egzekwowania reguł w grze politycznej. Ostatecznie okazało się, że kluczowe aspekty procesu "wyborów naukowych" były niesprawcze i nie przyniosły sprawiedliwego wyniku wyborów w 2021 r. w Ugandzie.
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Więcej informacji: Polityka Open Access czasopisma "Studia z Polityki Publicznej/Public Policy Studies"
Referencje
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- Ahidjo-Iya, N. A.-I., Hounkpe, M. (2021). Elections in the time of COVID-19 - What can West Africans do to prepare? - OSAWA. Open Society, Initiative for West Africa. https://www.osiwa.org/newsroom/elections-in-the-time-of-covid-19-what-can-west-africans-do-to-prepare/ (accessed: 5.07.2021).
- Ahluwalia, P. (2016). Can Uganda Ever Have Democratic Elections? African Identities, 14 (2): 99-100.
- Arndt, C., Davies, R., Gabriel, S., Harris, L., Makrelov, K., Robinson, S., Levy, S., Simbanegavi, W., van Seventer, D., Anderson, L. (2020). Covid-19 lockdowns, income distribution, and food security: An analysis for South Africa. Global Food Security, 26: 100-410.
- Atuobi, S. M. (2008). Election-related violence in Africa. Conflict Trends, 2008 (1): 10-15.
- Baturo, A. (2010). The stakes of losing office, term limits and democracy. British Journal of Political Science, 40 (3): 635-662.
- Buguzi, S. (2021). Covid-19: Counting the cost of denial in Tanzania. The BMJ, 373.
- Cheeseman, N., Klaas, B. (2018). How to Rig an Election. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Cowen, M., Laakso, L. (1997). An overview of election studies in Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 35 (4), 717-744.
- Dietrich, S., Wright, J. (2015). Foreign aid allocation tactics and democratic change in Africa. The Journal of Politics, 77 (1), 216-234.
- Ellena, C. (2020). Global Impact of COVID-19 on Elections. Washington, DC: International Foundation for Electoral Systems.
- Endeshaw, D. (2020). Speaker of Ethiopia's Upper House Resigns. TesfaNews. https://www.tesfanews.net/ethiopia-upper-house-speaker-keria-ibrahim-resigns/ (accessed: 8.07.2021).
- Freedom House (2021). Uganda. https://freedomhouse.org/country/uganda/freedom-world/2020 (accessed: 2.07.2021).
- Gaveriaux, L.-M. (2021, June 21). Ethiopian Election Results Delayed as Voters Speak of Intimidation and Violence. Vice World News. https://www.vice.com/en/contributor/laura-mai-gaveriaux (accessed: 8.07.2021).
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- Gyimah-Boadi, E. (2015). Africa's Waning Democratic Commitment. Journal of Democracy, 26 (1): 101-113.
- Hancock, I. (1970). Patriotism and Neo-Traditionalism in Buganda: The Kabaka Yekka ('The King Alone') Movement, 1961-1962. The Journal of African History, 11 (3): 419-434.
- International Federation for Human Rights (2020). Covid-19 and Elections in sub-Saharan Africa: what risks for democracy and human rights? https://www.fidh.org/en/region/Africa/covid-19-and-elections-in-sub-saharan-africa-what-risks-for-democracy (accessed: 4.12.2021).
- Khisa, M. (2020). Politicisation and Professionalisation: The Progress and Perils of Civil-Military Transformation in Museveni's Uganda. Civil Wars, 22 (2-3): 289-312.
- Kumah-Abiwu, F. (2011). Post-cold war democratization in Africa: The paradox of elections and democratic consolidation. West Africa Review, (19): 67-84.
- Levitsky, S., Way, L. (2005). International linkage and democratization. Journal of Democracy, 16 (3): 20-34.
- Levitsky, S., Way, L. A. (2002). Elections without democracy: The rise of competitive authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 13 (2): 51-65.
- Library of Congress (2021). Uganda: Proposal to Re-Introduce Presidential Term Limits. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2012-04-25/uganda-proposal-to-re-introduce-presidential-term-limits/ (accessed: 10.07.2021).
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- Matlosa, K. (2021). Elections in Africa During COVID-19: The Tenuous Balance Between Democracy and Human Security. Politikon, 48 (2): 159-173.
- Melchiorre, L. (2021). Our Liberation is a Matter of Now": An Interview with Bobi Wine. African Arguments. https://africanarguments.org/2021/05/our-liberation-is-a-matter-of-now-an-interview-with-bobi-wine/ (accessed: 1.07.2021).
- Morse, Y. L. (2015). From single party to electoral authoritarian regimes: the institutional origins of competitiveness in post-Cold War Africa. Comparative Politics, 48 (1): 126-151.
- Mumbere, D. (2020) Inside Uganda's proposed 'scientific election' Analysis. Africa News. https://www.africanews.com/2020/06/24/inside-ugandas-proposed-scientific-election-analysis/ (accessed: 2.07.2021).
- Ngubwagye, J. M. (2021). Uganda's scientific elections. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.ug/the-2021-scientific-election/ (accessed: 12.07.2021).
- Nyagah, J. (2021). In Uganda's 2021 scientific election; the incumbent has all the visibility. The East African. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/oped/comment/uganda-2021scientific-election-incumbent-has-all-visibility-2015016 (accessed: 10.07.2021).
- Oficina de Información Diplomática del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores Unión Europea (2021). República de Uganda. http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Documents/FichasPais/UGANDA_FICHA%20PAIS.pdf (accessed: 7.07.2021).
- Olsen, G. R. (1998). Europe and the promotion of democracy in post Cold War Africa: how serious is Europe and for what reason? African Affairs, 97 (388): 343-367.
- Ozili, P. (2022), COVID-19 in Africa: socio-economic impact, policy response and opportunities, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 42 (3/4): 177-200. DOI: 10.1108/IJSSP-05-2020-0171.
- Reuters (2020). Uganda's presidential hopeful Wine says hotels in a town refuse to host him. Reuters China. https://cn.reuters.com/article/ozatp-uk-uganda-politics-idAFKBN2871F4-OZATP (accessed: 3.07.2021).
- Reuters (2021) Facebook takes down Ugandan pro-Museveni accounts ahead of election. Reuters Middle East and Africa. https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-uganda-election-facebook-idUSKBN29G1H9 (accessed: 12.07.2021).
- Reyntjens, F. (2020). Respecting and circumventing presidential term limits in sub-Saharan Africa: a comparative survey. African Affairs, 119 (475): 275-295.
- Rukooko, A. B. (2017). Protracted civil war, civil militias and political transition in Uganda since 1986. In: D. J. Francis (Ed.), Civil Militia (pp. 213-230). London: Routledge.
- Samuel-Stone, S. (2021) Digital voter manipulation: A situational analysis of how online spaces were used as a manipulative tool during Uganda's 2021 General election. Kampala, Uganda: African Institute for Investigative Journalism and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung.
- Sato, Y. (2013). Rational choice theory. Sociopedia. isa, 2013, 1-10.
- Siegle, J., Cook, C. (2021). Taking Stock of Africa's 2021 Elections. African Centre for Strategic Studies. https://africacenter.org/spotlight/2021-elections/ (accessed: 2.07.2021).
- Sserunjogi, E. M. (201). Ssemogerere: Why I decided to work with Obote and Museveni. The Monitor. https://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/PeoplePower/Ssemogerere--Why-I-decided-to-work-with-Obote-and-Museveni/689844-2467038-co9qq7z/index.html (accessed: 2.05.2021).
- Tangri, R., Mwenda, A. M. (2010). President Museveni and the politics of presidential tenure in Uganda. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 28 (1): 31-49.
- The Independent (2020). Police chase Kyagulanyi from Migyera town after making him sleep outside. https://www.independent.co.ug/police-chase-kyagulanyi-from-migyera-town-after-making-him-sleep-outside/ (accessed: 6.07.2021).
- The Monitor (2011). Election rigging: What really took Museveni to the bush? https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/magazines/people-power/election-rigging-what-really-took-museveni-to-the-bush--1486176 (accessed: 3.03.2021).
- The Observer (2021). Soroti radios deny Amuriat access, cite gov't intimidation. https://observer.ug/news/headlines/67366-soroti-radios-deny-amuriat-access-cting-gov-t-intimidation (accessed: 7.06.2021).
- The Washington Post (2021). A crisis in Ethiopia has been looming for months. Now, it's here. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/11/07/ethiopia-crisis-abiy-ahmed-tigray-province/ (accessed: 4.12.2021).
- Uganda Electoral Commission (2021). Uganda Electoral Commission. https://www.ec.or.ug (accessed: 26.04.2021).
- UN News (2021). Uganda: Deteriorating Human rights situation in run-up to elections next week. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081662 (accessed: 3.07.2021).
- Wandera, D. (2021). Police wrong to block Bobi Wine from Radio-EC. The Monitor. https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/police-wrong-to-block-bobi-wine-from-radio-ec-1928756 (accessed: 8.04.2021).
- Wittek, R. (2013). Rational choice theory. In: R. J. McGee, R. L. Warms (Eds.), Theory in social and cultural anthropology: an encyclopedia (pp. 688-690), Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.
Referencje
Adejumobi, S. (2000). Elections in Africa: A fading shadow of democracy? International Political Science Review, 21 (1): 59-73.
Ahidjo-Iya, N. A.-I., Hounkpe, M. (2021). Elections in the time of COVID-19 - What can West Africans do to prepare? - OSAWA. Open Society, Initiative for West Africa. https://www.osiwa.org/newsroom/elections-in-the-time-of-covid-19-what-can-west-africans-do-to-prepare/ (accessed: 5.07.2021).
Ahluwalia, P. (2016). Can Uganda Ever Have Democratic Elections? African Identities, 14 (2): 99-100.
Arndt, C., Davies, R., Gabriel, S., Harris, L., Makrelov, K., Robinson, S., Levy, S., Simbanegavi, W., van Seventer, D., Anderson, L. (2020). Covid-19 lockdowns, income distribution, and food security: An analysis for South Africa. Global Food Security, 26: 100-410.
Atuobi, S. M. (2008). Election-related violence in Africa. Conflict Trends, 2008 (1): 10-15.
Baturo, A. (2010). The stakes of losing office, term limits and democracy. British Journal of Political Science, 40 (3): 635-662.
Buguzi, S. (2021). Covid-19: Counting the cost of denial in Tanzania. The BMJ, 373.
Cheeseman, N., Klaas, B. (2018). How to Rig an Election. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Cowen, M., Laakso, L. (1997). An overview of election studies in Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 35 (4), 717-744.
Dietrich, S., Wright, J. (2015). Foreign aid allocation tactics and democratic change in Africa. The Journal of Politics, 77 (1), 216-234.
Ellena, C. (2020). Global Impact of COVID-19 on Elections. Washington, DC: International Foundation for Electoral Systems.
Endeshaw, D. (2020). Speaker of Ethiopia's Upper House Resigns. TesfaNews. https://www.tesfanews.net/ethiopia-upper-house-speaker-keria-ibrahim-resigns/ (accessed: 8.07.2021).
Freedom House (2021). Uganda. https://freedomhouse.org/country/uganda/freedom-world/2020 (accessed: 2.07.2021).
Gaveriaux, L.-M. (2021, June 21). Ethiopian Election Results Delayed as Voters Speak of Intimidation and Violence. Vice World News. https://www.vice.com/en/contributor/laura-mai-gaveriaux (accessed: 8.07.2021).
Green, S. L. (2002). Rational choice theory: An overview. Waco, TX: Baylor University. http://business.baylor.edu/steve_green/green1.doc (accessed: 9.07.2021).
Guthrie, E., Ksenjek, E. (2020, April 23). Exploring the Impact of COVID-19 on Recent Elections in Mali. Premise. https://www.premise.com/exploring-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-recent-elections-in-mali/ (accessed: 9.07.2021).
Gyimah-Boadi, E. (2015). Africa's Waning Democratic Commitment. Journal of Democracy, 26 (1): 101-113.
Hancock, I. (1970). Patriotism and Neo-Traditionalism in Buganda: The Kabaka Yekka ('The King Alone') Movement, 1961-1962. The Journal of African History, 11 (3): 419-434.
International Federation for Human Rights (2020). Covid-19 and Elections in sub-Saharan Africa: what risks for democracy and human rights? https://www.fidh.org/en/region/Africa/covid-19-and-elections-in-sub-saharan-africa-what-risks-for-democracy (accessed: 4.12.2021).
Khisa, M. (2020). Politicisation and Professionalisation: The Progress and Perils of Civil-Military Transformation in Museveni's Uganda. Civil Wars, 22 (2-3): 289-312.
Kumah-Abiwu, F. (2011). Post-cold war democratization in Africa: The paradox of elections and democratic consolidation. West Africa Review, (19): 67-84.
Levitsky, S., Way, L. (2005). International linkage and democratization. Journal of Democracy, 16 (3): 20-34.
Levitsky, S., Way, L. A. (2002). Elections without democracy: The rise of competitive authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 13 (2): 51-65.
Library of Congress (2021). Uganda: Proposal to Re-Introduce Presidential Term Limits. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2012-04-25/uganda-proposal-to-re-introduce-presidential-term-limits/ (accessed: 10.07.2021).
Maizland, L. (2020). How Countries Are Holding Elections During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep29836.pdf (accessed: 4.12.2021).
Matlosa, K. (2021). Elections in Africa During COVID-19: The Tenuous Balance Between Democracy and Human Security. Politikon, 48 (2): 159-173.
Melchiorre, L. (2021). Our Liberation is a Matter of Now": An Interview with Bobi Wine. African Arguments. https://africanarguments.org/2021/05/our-liberation-is-a-matter-of-now-an-interview-with-bobi-wine/ (accessed: 1.07.2021).
Morse, Y. L. (2015). From single party to electoral authoritarian regimes: the institutional origins of competitiveness in post-Cold War Africa. Comparative Politics, 48 (1): 126-151.
Mumbere, D. (2020) Inside Uganda's proposed 'scientific election' Analysis. Africa News. https://www.africanews.com/2020/06/24/inside-ugandas-proposed-scientific-election-analysis/ (accessed: 2.07.2021).
Ngubwagye, J. M. (2021). Uganda's scientific elections. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.ug/the-2021-scientific-election/ (accessed: 12.07.2021).
Nyagah, J. (2021). In Uganda's 2021 scientific election; the incumbent has all the visibility. The East African. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/oped/comment/uganda-2021scientific-election-incumbent-has-all-visibility-2015016 (accessed: 10.07.2021).
Oficina de Información Diplomática del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores Unión Europea (2021). República de Uganda. http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Documents/FichasPais/UGANDA_FICHA%20PAIS.pdf (accessed: 7.07.2021).
Olsen, G. R. (1998). Europe and the promotion of democracy in post Cold War Africa: how serious is Europe and for what reason? African Affairs, 97 (388): 343-367.
Ozili, P. (2022), COVID-19 in Africa: socio-economic impact, policy response and opportunities, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 42 (3/4): 177-200. DOI: 10.1108/IJSSP-05-2020-0171.
Reuters (2020). Uganda's presidential hopeful Wine says hotels in a town refuse to host him. Reuters China. https://cn.reuters.com/article/ozatp-uk-uganda-politics-idAFKBN2871F4-OZATP (accessed: 3.07.2021).
Reuters (2021) Facebook takes down Ugandan pro-Museveni accounts ahead of election. Reuters Middle East and Africa. https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-uganda-election-facebook-idUSKBN29G1H9 (accessed: 12.07.2021).
Reyntjens, F. (2020). Respecting and circumventing presidential term limits in sub-Saharan Africa: a comparative survey. African Affairs, 119 (475): 275-295.
Rukooko, A. B. (2017). Protracted civil war, civil militias and political transition in Uganda since 1986. In: D. J. Francis (Ed.), Civil Militia (pp. 213-230). London: Routledge.
Samuel-Stone, S. (2021) Digital voter manipulation: A situational analysis of how online spaces were used as a manipulative tool during Uganda's 2021 General election. Kampala, Uganda: African Institute for Investigative Journalism and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung.
Sato, Y. (2013). Rational choice theory. Sociopedia. isa, 2013, 1-10.
Siegle, J., Cook, C. (2021). Taking Stock of Africa's 2021 Elections. African Centre for Strategic Studies. https://africacenter.org/spotlight/2021-elections/ (accessed: 2.07.2021).
Sserunjogi, E. M. (201). Ssemogerere: Why I decided to work with Obote and Museveni. The Monitor. https://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/PeoplePower/Ssemogerere--Why-I-decided-to-work-with-Obote-and-Museveni/689844-2467038-co9qq7z/index.html (accessed: 2.05.2021).
Tangri, R., Mwenda, A. M. (2010). President Museveni and the politics of presidential tenure in Uganda. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 28 (1): 31-49.
The Independent (2020). Police chase Kyagulanyi from Migyera town after making him sleep outside. https://www.independent.co.ug/police-chase-kyagulanyi-from-migyera-town-after-making-him-sleep-outside/ (accessed: 6.07.2021).
The Monitor (2011). Election rigging: What really took Museveni to the bush? https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/magazines/people-power/election-rigging-what-really-took-museveni-to-the-bush--1486176 (accessed: 3.03.2021).
The Observer (2021). Soroti radios deny Amuriat access, cite gov't intimidation. https://observer.ug/news/headlines/67366-soroti-radios-deny-amuriat-access-cting-gov-t-intimidation (accessed: 7.06.2021).
The Washington Post (2021). A crisis in Ethiopia has been looming for months. Now, it's here. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/11/07/ethiopia-crisis-abiy-ahmed-tigray-province/ (accessed: 4.12.2021).
Uganda Electoral Commission (2021). Uganda Electoral Commission. https://www.ec.or.ug (accessed: 26.04.2021).
UN News (2021). Uganda: Deteriorating Human rights situation in run-up to elections next week. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081662 (accessed: 3.07.2021).
Wandera, D. (2021). Police wrong to block Bobi Wine from Radio-EC. The Monitor. https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/police-wrong-to-block-bobi-wine-from-radio-ec-1928756 (accessed: 8.04.2021).
Wittek, R. (2013). Rational choice theory. In: R. J. McGee, R. L. Warms (Eds.), Theory in social and cultural anthropology: an encyclopedia (pp. 688-690), Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.